quiz 9..♥ :(

1. Define the term, computer security risks, and briefly describe the types of cybercrime perpetrators: hacker, cracker, script kiddie, corporate spy, unethical employee, cyberextortionist, and cyberterrorist.

Computer security is a branch of computer technology known as Information Security as applied to computers and networks. The objective of computer security includes protection of information and property from theft, corruption, or natural disaster, while allowing the information and property to remain accessible and productive to its intended users. 

Cybercrime Perpetrators

♥Hacker refers to a computer programmer who is able to create usable computer programs where none previously existed. 

♥Cracker is a variation of hacker, with the analogy equal to a safe cracker. Some individuals use the term cracker in an attempt to differentiate from the honorable computer programmer definition of hacker.

♥Script kiddy is an individual who executes computer scripts and programs written by others. Their motive is to hack a computer by using someone else’s software. Examples include password decryption programs and automated access utilities.


♥Corporate Spy - have excellent computer and networking skills and are hired to break into a specific computer and steal its proprietary data and information.

♥Unethical employee - break into their employers' computer for a variety of reasons. Some simply want to exploit security weakness.

♥Cyberextortionist - is someone who uses e-mail as a vehicle for extortion. These perpetrator s send an organization a threatening e-mail message indicating they will expose confidential information, exploit a security flaw, or launch an attack that will compromise the organization s network - if they are not paid of a sum of money.

♥Cyber-terrorist - a programmer who breaks into computer systems in order to steal or change or destroy information as a form of cyber-terrorism

2. Describe various types of Internet and network attacks (computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, rootkits, botnets, denial of service attacks, back doors, and spoofing), and identify ways to safeguard against these attacks, including firewalls, intrusion detection software, and honeypots. 

A computer virus is a potentially damaging program that affects, or infects, a computer negatively by altering the way the computer works without the user's knowledge or permission. A worm is a program that copies itself repeatedly, using up resources and possibly shutting down the computer or network.A Trojan horse is a program that hides within or looks like a legitimate program. A root kit is a program that hides in a computer and allows someone from a remote location to take full control of the computer. To take precautions against this malware,1.Do not start a computer with removable media in the drives or ports. 2. Never open an e-mail attachment unless you are expecting the attachment and it is from a trusted source.3. Disable macros in documents that are not from a trusted source. 4. Install an antivirus program and a personal firewall. 5. Stay informed about any new virus alert or virus hoax. 6. To defend against a botnet, a denial of service attack, improper use of a back door, and spoofing, users can install a firewall, install intrusion detection software, and set up a honeypot.

3. Discuss techniques to prevent unauthorized computer access and use 

Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or network without permission. Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or illegal activities. Organizations can take measures such as implementing a written acceptable use policy (AUP), a firewall, intrusion detection software, an access control, and an audit trail. Access controls include a user name and password or passphrase, a CAPTCHA, a possessed object, and a biometric device.

4. Identify safeguards against hardware theft and vandalism 
Hardware theft is the act of stealing computer equipment. Hardware vandalism is the act of defacing or destroying computer equipment. The best preventive measures against hardware theft and vandalism are common sense and a constant awareness of the risk. Physical devices and practical security measures, such as locked doors and windows, can help protect equipment. Passwords, possessed objects, and biometrics can reduce the risk of theft or render a computer useless if it is stolen.

5. Explain the ways software manufacturers protect against software piracy. 

Software piracy is the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software. To protect themselves from software piracy, manufacturers issue a license agreement and require product activation.

6. Discuss how encryption works, and explain why it is necessary 
Encryption prevents information theft and unauthorized access by converting readable data into unreadable characters. To read the data, a recipient must decrypt, or decipher, it into a readable form. An encryption algorithm, or cypher, converts readable plaintext into unreadable cipher text. Encryption is used to protect information on the Internet and networks.

7. Discuss the types of devices available that protect computers from system failure 

A system failure is the prolonged malfunction of a computer. A common cause of system failure is an electrical power variation such as noise, an undervoltage, or an overvoltage. A surge protector, also called a surge suppressor, uses special electrical components to smooth out minor noise, provide a stable current flow, and keep an overvoltage from reaching the computer and other electronic equipment. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) contains surge protection circuits and one or more batteries that can provide power during a temporary loss of power.


8. Explain the options available for backing up computer resources. 

A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk that can be used to restore the file if the original is lost, damaged, or destroyed. Users can opt for a full backup or a selective backup. Some users implement a three-generation backup policy that preserves three copies of important files: the grandparent, the parent, and the child. Others use RAID or continuous backup. Most operating systems and backup devices include a backup program.

9. Identify risks and safeguards associated with wireless communications. 

Wireless access poses additional security risks. Intruders connect to other wireless networks to gain free Internet access or an organization's confidential data. Some individuals intercept and monitor communications as they transmit. Others connect to a network through an unsecured wireless access point (WAP), sometimes using the techniques of war driving or war flying. Some safeguards include firewalls, reconfiguring the WAP, and ensuring equipment uses a wireless security standard, such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) and 802.11i.

10. Discuss ways to prevent health-related disorders and injuries due to computer use. 

A computer-related repetitive strain injury (RSI) can include tendonitis and carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). Another health-related condition is eyestrain associated with computer vision syndrome (CVS). To prevent health-related disorders, take frequent breaks, use precautionary exercises and techniques, and use ergonomics when planning the workplace. Computer addiction occurs when the computer consumes someone's entire social life.


11. Recognize issues related to information accuracy, intellectual property rights, codes of conduct, and green computing. 

Computer ethics govern the use of computers and information systems. Issues in computer ethics include the responsibility for information accuracy and the intellectual property rights to which creators are entitled for their works. An IT (information technology) code of conduct helps determine whether a specific computer action is ethical or unethical. Green computing reduces the electricity and environmental waste while using a computer.


12. Discuss issues surrounding information privacy, including electronic profiles, cookies, spyware and adware, spam, phishing, privacy laws, social engineering, employee monitoring, and content filtering. 

Information privacy is the right of individuals and companies to deny or restrict the collection and use of information about them. Issues surrounding information privacy include the following. 

An electronic profile combines data about an individual's Web use with data from public sources, which then is sold.

 A cookie is a file that a Web server stores on a computer to collect data about the user. 

Spyware is a program placed on a computer that secretly collects information about the user. 

Adware is a program that displays an online advertisement in a banner or pop-up window. 

Spamis an unsolicited e-mail message or newsgroup posting sent to many recipients or newsgroups at once. 

Phishing is a scam in which a perpetrator attempts to obtain personal or financial information. 

The concern about privacy has led to the enactment of many federal and state laws regarding the disclosure of data. 

As related to the use of computers, social engineering is defined as gaining unauthorized access or obtaining confidential information by taking advantage of the trusting human nature of some victims and the naivety of others. 

Employee monitoring uses computers to observe, record, and review an employee's computer use. 

Content filtering restricts access to certain materials on the Web.

quiz 8..♥ :(

1. Define the term, database, and explain how a database interacts with data and information.

A database is an organized collection of data for one or more purposes, usually in digital form. The data are typically organized to model relevant aspects of reality, in a way that supports processes requiring this information. A database interacts with data it provides the means to effectively describe specific data structures needed to model an application.
 2. Describe file maintenance techniques (adding records, modifying records, deleting records) and validation techniques.
File maintenance refers to the procedures that keep data current. File maintenance procedures include adding records when new data is obtained, modifying records to correct inaccurate data or to update old data with new data, and deleting records when they are no longer are needed.

 

Validation is the process of comparing data with a set of rules or values to find out if the data is correct. Many programs perform a validity check that analyzes data, either as you enter it or after you enter it, to help ensure that it is correct. Types of validity checks include an alphabetic check, a numeric check, a range check, a consistency check, a completeness check, and a check digit.

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3. Discuss the terms character, field, record, and file

- Characters numbers, letters, space, punctuation marks, or other symbols

- Field is a combination of one or more related characters

- Record is a group of related fields

- File is a collection of related records

4. Discuss the functions common to most database management systems:
data dictionary, file retrieval and maintenance, data security, and backup and recovery.

With a database management system (DBMS), users can create, access, and manage a computerized database. Most DBMS perform common functions.
A data dictionary contains data about cache file in the database and cache field within those files. A DBMS offers several methods to retrieve and maintain data, such as query languages, query by example, forms, and report generators. A query language is consists of simple, English-like statements that allow users to specify the data to display, print, or store. A query by example (QBE) has a graphical user interface that assists users with retrieving data. A form is a window on the screen that provides areas for entering or modifying data. A report generator allows users to design a report on the screen, retrieve data into the report design, and display or print the report. A backup is a copy of the database. A log is a listing of activities that change the contents of the database. A recovery utility uses the logs and/or backups to restore the database.

5. Differentiate between a file processing approach and the database approach.
   ♥Traditional File Approach is data dependence while database are data independence.

♥File processing approach - each department or area within an organization has its own set of data files. Two major weaknesses of file processing systems are redundant data and isolated data.

    ♥Database approach- many programs and users share the data in a database. The database approach reduces data redundancy, improves data integrity, shares data, permits easier access, and reduces development time.

6. Describe characteristics of relational, object-oriented, and multidimensional databases.

Relational database- stores data in tables that consists of rows and columns. Each row has a primary key and each column has a unique name.

Object-oriented database (OODB) - stores data in objects; often use an object query language to manipulate and retrieve data.

Multidimensional database-stores data in dimensions; allows users to access and analyze any view of the database data and no standard query language exists.

7. Explain how to access Web databases.

A Web database links to a form on a Web page. To access data in a Web database, you fill on the form or enter search text on a Web page. A Web database usually resides on a database server, which is a computer that store and provides access to a database.

1. Discuss the components required for successful communications.
     =) Successful communications require a sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit data, instructions or information, a communications device that converts or formats the data, instructions or information from the sending device into signals carried by a communications channel, and a communications channel or path on which the signals travel. Also required are a communications device that receives signals from the communications channel and converts or formats them so the receiving device can understand the signals, and a receiving device that accepts the data, instructions or information.

2. Identify various sending and receiving devices.  

    =)Sending device — initiates instruction to transmit data,instruction, or information.

    =)Receiving Device - accepts transmission of data,instruction, or information.

	Microcomputers, minicomputers, and mainframes  all can serve as sending and receiving devices.
	Besides, Internet appliances and Web enabled  handheld computers and devices  (e.g., cellular telephones and pagers)  can also serve as sending and receiving devices.

3. Describe uses of computer communications.
    =)A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems located at different places. In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and sharing resources. The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as server. In the network the individual computers, which access shared network resources, are known as workstations or nodes.
4. List advantages of using a network.
 *share software

 *share information with others on networks

 *share peripherals

 *speed of sharing software and information files

 *cheaper than buying individual software and hardware for each standalone

 *security, files can be copy inhibit mode  

 *Connectivity and Communication

 *Data Sharing

 *Hardware Sharing

 *Internet Access Sharing

 *Performance Enhancement and Balancing

 *Entertainment

 5. Differentiate among client/server, peer-to-peer, and P2P networks.

    =) Client/server describes the relationship between two computer programs in which one program , the client, makes a service request from another system, the server, which fulfills the request. In a network, the client/server model provides a convenient way to efficiently interconnect programs that are distributed across different locations

        =) Another structure for a distributes system is the peer - to peer (P2P)system model. In this model, clients and servers are not distinguished from one another; instead, all nodes within the system may act as either client or a server, depending on whether it is requesting or prividing a service.
In client server system , the server is a bottle neck; but in a peer-to peer system, services can be provided by several nodes throughout the network.

6. Describe the various network communications standards.

standards organizations of relevance for communications protocols are the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), theInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The IETF maintains the protocols in use on the Internet. The IEEE controls many software and hardware protocols in the electronics industry for commercial and consumer devices. The ITU is an umbrella organization of telecommunications engineers designing the public switched telephone network (PSTN), as well as many radio communication systems. For marine electronics the NMEA standards are used. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) produces protocols and standards for Web technologies.

International standards organizations are supposed to be more impartial than local organizations with a national or commercial self-interest to consider. Standards organizations also do research and development for standards of the future. In practice, the standards organizations mentioned, cooperate closely with each other
7. Explain the purpose of communications software.

    =)Communication software is used to provide remote access to systems and is also used to exchange messages in text, audio and video format for the purpose of communication. These software send and receive data over telephone lines through modems. The communication software allows computers in different geographical regions to communicate with each other through terminal emulators, file transfer programs, chat and instant messaging programs. 

8. Describe various types of lines for communications over the telephone network.

9. Describe commonly used communications devices.

=)Any kind of radio or TV 
=)Computers 
=)servers 
=)routers 
=)cables 
=)ethernet bridges 
=)satellites 
=)CDs 
=)DVDs 
=)CD players 
=)DVD players 
=)Tape players 
=)Stereo/hi-fi sets 
=)speakers
10. Discuss different ways to set up a home network.

11. Identify various physical and wireless transmission media.

QIUZ :( 5

1. Differentiate between storage devices and storage media.
    + Storage device A device capable of storing data. The term usually refers to mass storage devices, such as disk and tape drives.
       is a hardware device capable of storing information. There are two storage devices used in computers; a primary storage device such as computer RAM and a secondary storage device such as a computer hard disk drive. 
    + Storage media are devices that store application and user information. The primary storage media for a computer is usually the internal hard drive. Most internal drives are regular IDE hard drives that come with the computer. A removable drive is another popular storage device that is usually connected by fire wire, USB, or parallel port (e.g. portable Zip drives, Jaz drives, or CD/DVD drives). Newer forms of external storage 
include USB thumb drives and camera storage media.
2. Identify the uses of tape, magnetic stripe cards, smart cards, microfilm and microfiche, and enterprise storage.
    +Magnetic stripe cards 
First used in the early 1960s, magnetic stripe technology, occasionally called "magstripe," remains as an effective form of information storage. While other technologies have come onto the market, magnetic stripe cards are still a cheap, easily implemented system that is seen and used by millions of people every day. The information that is encoded onto the stripe is usually unique to the cardholder and helps to identify that person.

    +A smart card, typically a type of chip card, is a plastic card that contains an embedded computer chip–either amemory or microprocessor type–that stores and transacts data. This data is usually associated with either value, information, or both and is stored and processed within the card's chip. The card data is transacted via a reader that is part of a computing system. Systems that are enhanced with smart cards are in use today throughout several key applications, including healthcare, banking, entertainment, and transportation. All applications can benefit from the added features and security that smart cards provide. 

    +tape drive Tapes have been the cornerstone of corporate backup, disaster recovery, and business continuity strategies for 

years. Now, changing backup requirements due to regulations such as Sarbanes-Oxley, new data retention laws, and 

the explosion in the amount of data that needs to be backed 

up are placing new demands on tape systems. 

To deal with these new challenges, companies are moving 

to tape automation to reduce human error, save IT staff time, 

and speed up data recovery and file restoration. At the same 

time, some backup duties are being shifted to disk-based 

backup systems allowing companies to take advantage of 

the best of both worlds. 

         +Enterprise storage is a centralized repository for business information that provides common data management and protection, as well as data sharing functions, through connections to numerous (and possibly dissimilar) computer systems. Developed as a solution for the enterprise that deals with heavy workloads of business-critical information, enterprise storage systems should be scalable for workloads of up to 300 gigabytes without relying on excessive cabling or the creation of subsystems. Other important aspects of the enterprise storage system are unlimited connectivity and support for all the different platforms in operation.

 
3. Describe the various types of flash memory storage: solid state drives, memory cards, USB flash drives, and ExpressCard modules.
4. Differentiate among various types of optical discs: CDs, archive discs and Picture CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs.
5. Summarize the characteristics of ink-jet printers, photo printers, laser printers, multifunction peripherals, thermal printers, mobile printers, label and postage printers, and plotters and large-format printers

quiz 3..♥ :(

1. Describe the four categories of output.

 Text consists of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or any other symbol requiring one byte of computer storage space) that are used to create words, sentences, and paragraphs. 
Graphics are digital representations of nontext information such as drawings, charts, photographs, and animation (a series of still images in rapid sequence that gives the illusion of motion). 
Audio is music, speech, or any other sound. 
Video consists of images played back at speeds to provide the appearance of full motion.
2. The characteristics of LCD monitors, LCD screens, plasma monitors, and HDTVs.
LCD's Over the last decade, the display of choice has been the monochrome character liquid crystal display (or LCD display as it is commonly referred to, despite the grammatical error). The format of two lines of sixteen characters has become the norm, despite many other variants. This format has become so popular that in most cases smaller LCD displays are actually more expensive, simply due to the economics of supply – LCDs in the 2 × 16 format are manufactured in such large quantities that the manufacturing cost is much lower than those for simpler displays. This lower manufacturing cost is reflected in the price we pay for the component, even when purchasing just one.

The popularity of the 2 × 16 character LCD is such that many manufacturers produce their own displays with a compatible interface. In many cases, displays from different manufacturers are indistinguishable from each other and this makes the designer’s life much easier. There is nothing worse than writing a constructional article using some specialist component, only to fi nd the sole manufacturer has stopped making it by the time your article is published! These LCD displays all bear the same characteristics. The display area is arranged as 32-character cells. Each cell is a uniform array of 35 small dots, arranged in a grid fi ve wide by seven tall.

The LCD display is mounted on a small PCB that contains one or two ICs which provide the interface (control) between the display itself and your microcontroller. A small read only memory (ROM) within the control IC simplifies the means by which you write information onto the display – you specify an ASCII character code, and the controller will draw the corresponding dots in a character cell. The controller IC has a small amount of RAM too, which can be used to display user-generated graphical symbols within a character cell. This is useful for creating icons (a battery symbol for example) but as the display is arranged as a collection of character cells, it is not possible to write in the gaps between characters, and so a full display sized graphical image cannot be produced.These displays have other drawbacks too.
LCD's screen The pixels in LCD panels work by passing polarized light through filter layers. To light up a pixel, the liquid crystal component in each pixel applies a ‘twist’ to the light after it passes through the first polarizing layer, making it able to pass through the second. Unlike CRT displays, where what you see is caused by the phosphor coating inside the glass tube being excited by electron beams, the light emitted from an LCD screen makes its way through multiple layers, channeled out through each pixel. This is the root cause of this technology’s biggest Achilles’ heel: view an LCD screen from straight on and you’ll see each pixel exactly as intended. But view it from far enough to one side - or above or below for that matter - and you won’t get the direct, face-on strength of the light beaming out of the pixels. To use a very crude analogy, it is a little like the difference between viewing a light at the base of a tube from face on or from off to one side. Only one viewpoint gets the full strength of the light as it shines out. The result is changes in the values of what’s shown on the screen depending on where you sit. This is clearly a disaster for colour proofing, and something that no amount of calibration can help.

Older LCD screens had such a narrow field of view that merely leaning over a bit or just sitting up straight in the chair would produce obvious visual changes. This isn't the case with newer displays, but it is worth noting that if you sit quite close to today’s larger panels your angle of view from one side to the other and from top to bottom can be great enough to produce colour shifts in objects simply though being in different parts of the screen. Although LCD technology is constantly improving, the increase in display sizes tends to make this somewhat of a ‘two steps forward, one step back’ situation, particularly with the very largest LCD panels now on offer. 
Plasma displays are bright (1000 lux or higher for the module), have a wide color gamut, and can be produced in fairly large sizes, up to 381 cm (150 inches) diagonally. They have a very low-luminance "dark-room" black level compared to the lighter grey of the unilluminated parts of an LCD screen. The display panel is only about 6 cm (2.5 inches) thick, while the total thickness, including electronics, is less than 10 cm (4 inches). Plasma displays use as much power per square meter as a CRT or an AMLCD television. Power consumption varies greatly with picture content, with bright scenes drawing significantly more power than darker ones, as is also true of CRTs. Nominal power rating is typically 400 watts for a 50-inch (127 cm) screen. Post-2006 models consume 220 to 310 watts for a 50-inch (127 cm) display when set to cinema mode. Most screens are set to 'shop' mode by default, which draws at least twice the power (around 500-700 watts) of a 'home' setting of less extreme brightness.

The lifetime of the latest generation of plasma displays is estimated at 100,000 hours of actual display time, or 27 years at 10 hours per day. This is the estimated time over which maximum picture brightness degrades to half the original value, not catastrophic failure.

Plasma displays also have their drawbacks. They are often criticized for reflecting more ambient light than LCD displays. The screen is made from glass, which reflects more light than the material used to make an LCD screen, which creates a glare. Although companies such as Panasonic coat their newer plasma screens with an anti-glare filter. Plasma panels currently cannot be made in screen sizes smaller than 32". Although few companies have been able to make plasma EDTVs this small, even fewer have made 32" plasma HDTVs. The 32" screen size is also "going extinct". Plasma displays are also considered bulky and thick (usually six inches in depth) compared to their LCD conterparts. Although 2009 high-end displays, such as Panasonic's Z1 and Samsung's B860 series can as slim as one inch thick. Plamsa displays also tend to consume more electricity than LCD displays. Panasonic, aims to solve this dilema by using Neo-PDP screens for their 2009 series of Viera plasma HDTVs. Panasonic states that the PDPs will consume half the power of the previous series to achive the same overall brightness.

Competing displays include the CRT, OLED, AMLCD, DLP, SED-tv, and field emission flat panel displays. Advantages of plasma display technology are that a large, very thin screen can be produced, and that the image is very bright and has a wide viewing angle. The viewing angle characteristics of plasma displays and flat-face CRTs are essentially the same, topping all LCD displays, which have a reduced viewing angle in at least one direction. Plasma TVs also do not exhibit an image blur common in many LCD TVs.
HDTV's Aside from the specific technical features already listed, there are some standard characteristics that can be compared between any two HDTVs. These all figure into how accurately your HDTV will reproduce the picture from various sources. At the end of the day the important thing is comparing different TVs with your own eyes. Each has a unique set of strengths and weaknesses, and the best picture for you is always subjective, determined largely by which imperfections bother you the most. 

Traditional LCD displays aren't very good at reproducing very dark colors because there's always light behind evey pixel. This can be mostly eliminated by LED backlighting, although right now that's only available on high end LCD HDTVs. DLP and plasma HDTVs don't generally have any problems in this area. 
Just as a HDTV should produce dark blacks, it should also produce bright whites. Even though LCDs are generally not as bright as DLP or plasma HDTVs, they may seem brighter due to their high color saturation. 
How much brighter the whitest white is than the blackest black is a huge component of accurate color reproduction. Your eye is much more sensitive to changes in brightness than in hue (color variation). If you want good color you have to start with correct brightness, and correct contrast assures each step from completely dark to full brightness is also correct. Poor contrast can result in either washed out color in very bright video or loss of detail in dark areas. Due to the combination of factors that go into black level and brightness, DLP HDTVs have varying contrast, largely determined by the quality of their color wheel. This is where plasma excels due to its combination of good black levels and brightness, generally resulting in the best contrast. 
The picture displayed on a HDTV may be processed in a number of ways before getting being displayed. It can be sharpened, which can make edges crisp but also create jagged lines in place of smooth edges. Smoothing can reduce jagged edges at the expense of a certain amount of detail. Neither is objectively superior, so you'll have to judge for yourself what makes a good picture. Just be aware that even with the same underlying technology and resolution, two HDTVs can have vastly different pictures. 
3. What are the components inside the systems units.


PSU is a part of a computer that supplies power to the rest of the computer. A cord is plugged into the wall that leads to the Out side of the computer and is plugged into the PSU.
Motherboard: The main circuit board in system unit is called the motherboard, it contains adaptor cards processor and memory chips. The mother can also be called the system board. 
Chip: A chip is a small semi-conducting material where intergrated circuits can be etched. Integrated circuits have many microscopic pathways capable of carrying electric current. Chips are packed in a certain way so they can be connected to a circiut board. 
Central processing unit (CPU): The CPU carries and interprets basic instructions that can operate a computer. The control unit coordinates operations in a computer. The Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) does arithmetic, comparison and logical operations. This can also be known as the processor. 
Machine cycle: The machine cycle is the name of the four operations of the CPU. The first step is to 'fetch' the program instuction/data from the memory. The second step is to 'decode', which means translate the instruction into instructions. Step three is to 'execute', carry out the instruction. Finally step four is to 'store', write the result back to memory.

 4. The components of a processor and how they complete a machine cycle.




5. Define a bit and describe how a series of bits represents data.
6. Identify the categories of application software.
7. Identify the key features of widely used business programs.
8. What are the advantages of using application software on the Web.
9. History of the Internet.
10. What are diferent storage devices.